Women of the Middle Ages: Wimples, Veils, and Head-rails - Part III

by Paula Lofting

This post concentrates mostly in the evidence we have for hair and headgear from the late Anglo-Saxon period: the 10th and 11th centuries.

By this time, wimples were big business in Anglo-Saxon society and much of Europe was converted, with German Paganism having little influence in Scandinavia  by 1100. Russia was also fully converted from around the 9th century, however, some other Eastern European communities were more resistant until the later medieval period.

Lot sleeps with his daughter who has loose hair

In Part's I & II, we have seen how Christianity has influenced the idea of women covering their hair and dressing modestly, and is the basis of the wimple and veil. As we saw in Part I, it was from a dictum of St Paul's (I Corinthians 2:5-6) that the wearing of veils grew.

 ...every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head—it is the same as having her head shaved. For if a woman does not cover her head, she might as well have her hair cut off; but if it is a disgrace for a woman to have her hair cut off or her head shaved, then she should cover her head.  

This sentiment of Paul's was soon to extend to women going about in public, not just married women, but girls who had reached puberty, around the age of 11-13.

It is difficult to establish whether or not women wore their hair covered at home mainly due to the lack of art that depicts women in their home environments without wearing a wimple. If any of the images are to be believed, one would think that women wore their head covered even when giving birth, having sex, and whilst sleeping. This could be attributed to the fact that the artists were  mostly monks or clerics, and their religious values influenced the artistry in the sense that moral women had to be shown wearing veils. Immoral women portrayed in scenes such as those from the Psychomachia by Prudentius wear their hair loose, see image below.

Chastity impales Lust represented
by a female with uncovered hair

The head gear seems to have covered the whole of the head and the shoulders with some of the neck on display, however on this image, these ladies appear to be wearing a light coloured veil under the top layer that seems to cover their neck up to their chin. This may have been what a 10th century nun would have been expected to wear under their wimples to distinguish them from the non-ecclesiastical women of the day.  How a woman wore her veil seems to have been a matter of taste, for there are several different styles.

Female saints wearing double veils.
From the Benedictional of St Æthelwold, late 10th c.
 BL Ms ADD 49598, f.2 

A large portion of the women portrayed in  Anglo-Saxon art seem to be high status so it is difficult to know how the lower class would have worn their head gear, but most likely, because of the work peasant women had to do, it would have been simple. As we have seen in the previous posts, simple caps like a bonnet which would tie around the head or under the chin, or scarves tied behind the neck, would have been better suited to those women doing manual labour than a long piece of floaty material wrapped around the head and neck. Perhaps, if the women could afford it, they might wear a snood or hood-type wimple, which went over their heads for special occasions like going to church, or out abroad.

Nuns on the Benediction
of Archbishop Robert
Mid 11thc

The beautiful illumination cropped from the Benediction of the Archbishop of Canterbury right, shows nuns wearing their headdresses in different styles. The woman at the back appears to have what could be a projection under her wimple to give it its triangular shape, the woman on the left in front, is wearing a snood-type wimple which is shaped much like a pillow case with openings at both ends, that has been widened at one end to fit and cover the shoulders. The last lady has a very elaborately wound and pinned scarf-type headdress with the end of it draped across the top of her head. These nuns are very well dressed for their vocation, indeed - the only thing that appears to give away  their occupation is the censor one of them has in her hand.

 Psychomachia late 10thc
© The British Library Board 

The young lady to the right is Luxuria from the psychomachia,  dancing for the warriors and tempting them away from their arms in favour of debauchery. She is wearing a similar style of headwear to the nun with the trailing end pinned over her head on the Benediction of Robert. The artist appears to have drawn her with particular attention to detail showing how the Anglo-Saxons must have loved their folds, frills and trailing, long flowing garments. It seems that the more elaborate and carefully the headdress is arranged, the more disapproving the monks were, who were the most likely artists of these drawings.  But not all Anglo-Saxons, it seems, had such ornately worn headrails. More modest women can be found wearing tighter and less voluminous wimples.

Queen Emma and Cnut
Public Domain, British Library online

Queens seem to have worn distinctive headdresses, as we see in the picture of 11thc Emma of Normandy with her sons. A veil is worn underneath her crown. Probably like the one that the angel is holding above Emma's head in the image of her and Cnut. Owen Crocker tells us in her Dress in Anglo Saxon England that there are images of women with embroidered and possibly bejewelled wimples, (see page 223 of her aforementioned book). As mentioned in Part II, Bishop Aldhelm had brought up the subject of nuns wearing inappropriate clothing. Apparently this was also a problem in late Anglo-Saxon period, as St Edith of Wilton was said to have been better dressed than the Bishop of Winchester!

Fillets were still popular in the 10th and 11th centuries as we see in the will of a lady called Wynflaed. She left two fillets - bindan - one was to a secular woman, and another to a nun, which seems to have been worn in conjunction with a veil and worn over the top as a 'ring'. One woman left a baende to her sister-in-law in her will of 1012. Queen Emma wears a baende across her forehead under her wimple in the image of her with Cnut. These items seem to have been one of the most gifted items in wills in the later AS world, possibly indicating how richly made they were, with jewels and gold sewn into them.                                             

The indication that Anglo Saxon women wore their hair in plaits and or 'up', is suggested by the unusual exception of the Virgin Mary who is wearing her uncovered and in a plait wound around her the crown of her head on an ivory book cover. But it is very difficult to assess how common this practice may have been as mostly, women are drawn with their hair covered.

In order to get some perspective on the functional and daily use of wimples, veils, and headrails etc, I asked Kat Dearden, a reenactor of the popular living history society, Regia Anglorum (www.regia.org) what her thoughts are on the wearing of wimples within the time bracket of the Anglo-Saxon period, here's what she had to say: 

"I strongly suspect that the full veil/wimple was not worn at all times. It's not practical. When working or in a domestic setting I think women covered their hair with a cap or scarf, and you see that borne out in later manuscripts that show far more scenes of daily life.When going out in public, going to church or in formal settings in the home, such as recieving visitors or celebrations, then that's when the full veil would be expected and worn. I suspect the rules probably differed according to social status as well. Queens and noble women are almost always on show, carrying out some form of formal role, therefore always veiled. Nuns are always in a religious setting, so likewise always veiled. Poorer women though? I think it's more likely the veil was worn at the same sort of times my Gran wore her hat, or a headscarf, at church, trips into town, and for 'company'. The sort of company that makes you panic and get the tea set out. Otherwise they are mostly engaging in domestic tasks with their family around, so no need for the full fig, just a cap to keep hair clean, out of the way and decently covered."

Kat Dearden
photo courtesy of Caroline Williams

Further Reading

Gale R. Owen-Crocker (2004) Dress In Anglo-Saxon England (rev. ed.) Boydell Press, UK.
www.regia.org

Paula Lofting - 

 Paula is the author of the award-winning Sons of the Wolf series set in the years leading up to the Battle of Hastings in the 11thc. Centred around the lives of a Sussex thegn, Wulfhere, and his family, we also meet historical characters such as Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex and his powerful family. The series tells the story of a bloodfeud between two men, played out against the backdrop of historical events.

Paula also reenacts with popular Living History Society, Regia Anglorum and works part-time as a psychiatric nurse. An avid reader of books, she has always wanted to write a major historical epic and is currently working on her third book in the series, Wolf's Bane. 

Paula can be found on:
Facebook
Twitter
You can also check out her Blog, 1066: The Road to Hastings and Other Stories , for more about the 11th century
Her Books, Sons of the Wolf and The Wolf Banner can be purchased here



 

Women of the Middle Ages: Wimples, Veils, and Head-rails - Part ll

By Paula Lofting

                                                   

From the advent of the conversion to Christianity, it is generally accepted that women in Europe were following the convention of covering the whole of the hair. We can take this to be from the 8th-9th centuries on, though earlier than that in Britain, it is easier to find evidence for not covering the hair. The custom had started early on in the Christian religion, and was proposed by St Paul and promulgated by his followers. Loose or uncovered hair was to become associated throughout most of the medieval period with loose morals or prostitution, therefore it would be unlikely that many women would forgo this custom - at least when going out abroad. Poorer women may not have been able to afford the extra cloth to augment their head-gear, however, their caps, which the most observant of the custom wore, could be adapted to cover the whole of their hair by using a square piece of material, big enough to fit their head and then some, with a drawstring sewn within the hem. This would allow them to tie long hair into a bun or coil at the neck which could be stuffed into the cap. So even the poorest of women could enjoy the comforts of not being singled out as loose women.

Previously, we have seen during the pagan era in Europe, that women wore their hair in nets, caps, and scarves, intimating that there was a practical need for keeping the hair contained. However there have been veils worn by followers of certain pagan deities in Rome and Greece, such as Vesta, remember the Vestal Virgins? The veil in pagan times seems to have been associated with virginity and chastity, as well as being to do with female shame and the dominance of men who enforce it. Many Roman women wore the veil, and there is evidence that the veil goes back to 1100 BC. The veil may have also been in use for priestesses performing rituals, so we know that the veiling of women has been around much longer than Judaism and Christianity, but it was Christianity that brought it to Northern Europe.

Virgo Vestalis Maxima

As we saw in Part One, there is little archaeological evidence of veils and wimples being worn even during the conversion era in Anglo-Saxon England. However, there have been found in high status graves, small pairs of dainty pins by the head which indicate they were used to hold a veil in place to a cap. In some of the less wealthy graves, single pins have also been found at the jaws, near the foreheads and under the skulls of 7th century women's skeletons. showing that they may have been used to fasten scarves, hoods or other everyday head-wear.

So, what types of hair coverings did the women of this era wear?

In the top of the late 8thc Genoels-Elderen Diptych, (below) we see the Virgin Mary wearing a short wimple that appears almost to be attached to her tunic, or mantle that she is wearing. She also wears a diadem under her wimple at her forehead, which is a decorative accessory worn to hold her cap in place. Her maidservant next to her is clearly of lower class and appears to wear her uncovered hair pulled back possibly into a bun at the nape, or is cut very short. The Diptych is from the late 8th century, and originates from Flanders and so could be the custom for someone of her status in that area at that time. She might even be a slave.

Genoels-Ederen ivory
Public Domain

Bishop Aldhelm, a West Saxon abbot and bishop, was known to have documented his concerns about women's dress. He disliked the extravagant forms of white or colourful long veils attached to fillets or ribbons. In the image on the lower Diptych panel, the embracing saints look to be wearing the type of long veils that Aldhelm could be talking about. (I wonder what Aldhelm would think about today's dress if he found these distasteful!) However, these long veils could also be interpreted as cloaks, which we have seen in other images as covering the head and fastened just below the breast.

The prudish Aldhelm was not a lover of curled hair at the forehead and temples which was probably all he was allowed to see, but still found this distasteful! However, we know that curling tongs did exist so it might be that veils and wimples were worn back off the forehead at some point in the late 7th-8thc era. Fig 116 in Gale Owen-Crocker's book, Dress in Anglo-Saxon England, page 159, shows a stone engraving of a sculpture of a veiled woman with the curled hair around her face showing.

Public Domain

This figure (left) from the early half of the 9thc  wears a cloak over her head and is fastened at the chest, as described above. One might wonder if this is what Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians may have looked like in her everyday wear. Owen-Crocker (2004) describes a late 9thc headdress found in a grave in Winchester as belonging to an extremely wealthy woman. The veil was edged with gold braid; whether the material was linen or silk, we are not informed. There was also a second gold braid which may have been attached to an ornament made with loops of gold decorated ribbon and worn as a band around the head above the brow. The sex of the skeleton was not determined, but the conclusion was that this type of cloth would have been associated with a woman, rather than a man.

Copyright 2012 Shelagh Lewins
with her permission

When people refer to a wimple, they are generally referring to most types of medieval head coverings that cover the whole of the hair. Generally, the consensus seems to be that the wimple, in Old English, wimpel, was a head-covering that might have been designed as a hood-shaped garment that covered the hair and was closed at the chest, in this era, they are not shown in drawings as covering the neck and chin as they do in later periods. Some were short, like the one that the virgin Mary appears to be wearing in the ivory image above, or some were long, and some were long rectangular pieces of material, wrapped over the head with the ends wrapping around the throat and thrown back over the shoulders. They might also be referred to as veils.

The image on the above right is from a lady called Shelagh Lewins who made this reconstruction of a 9thc high status Anglo-Saxon lady wearing a simple snood-like hair covering. Also from the same site is this interpretation of a 9thc lady with a 'wrap around veil' as described above. Underneath her veil, or scarfe, you can see the cap that she has attached her veil to and has an embroidered 'headband' to adorn the cap and probably keep that in place. Medieval women must have been very adept at securing their wimples, when going out, otherwise strong winds, low-lying branches, and perhaps a bit of tomfoolery, would dislodge them quite easily if not secured well.

Copyright 2012 Shelagh Lewins
with her permission

What the pins used to hold the headdress in place may have looked like.

http://jimmellowsdesigns.co.uk/wp-content/
uploads/2017/08/DSCF3549.jpg

                          

The 'Coppergate' cap was found in the archaeological dig in York. It can be found in the South Yorkshire museum and if you use this link you will see a picture of it: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/453245149968067004/ 

Here I have created my own interpretation for use in my re-enactment hobby, and which I wear around the campfire with or without my wimple. Mine has long ties attached to it so I can tie it securely to my head and keep in place. It seems I have slippery hair, which moves my head-gear all over the place throughout the day!
Here, as you can see, it is made of white linen. The cap does not cover all of my hair now, as I have too much hair to wear it all under the cap. The Coppergate cap was found in the 9thc 'Viking' area of York (Jorvik) but quite possibly also worn by the English ladies of the time. Scandinavian women would not have been as bothered about hiding their hair as the Christian Anglian women were, so a cap like this could have easily been worn by them for practical purposes rather than moral or religious reasons.

And here I am with my Coppergate cap underneath my snood-type wimple. If you look carefully, you may just see the on the top of my head, the head of the pin that secures the snood wimple to my cap. Where the 'beard' of the wimple falls at my chest (most handy for catching food that misses your mouth) and just above the York crucifix at my chest, you might just see the penanular brooch that keeps the wimple secure to my clothing, and stops it from flapping up in my face when I bend down!

In my next post, I am going to be looking at the 10th&11th centuries, the late Anglo Saxon era to see how things might have changed or moved on from the 9th century.



~~~~~~~~~~

Paula Lofting is an author and a member of the re-enactment society Regia Anglorum, where she regularly takes part in the Battle of Hastings. Her first novel, Sons of the Wolf, is set in eleventh-century England and tells the story of Wulfhere, a man torn between family and duty. The sequel, The Wolf Banner is available now. Paula is currently working on the third book in the series, Wolf's Bane

Find Paula on her Blog
on her Amazon Author Page

Women of the Middle Ages: Wimples, Veils, and Head-rails -Part I

By Paula Lofting                        

To Wear or not to wear a wimple

Boudicca
Public Domain

Mention women in the early middle ages and one often thinks of women wearing long silken head-rails with long braids, ribbons intertwined, but mention the dark ages, and it conjures up women with free-flowing locks that fly like banners behind them as they ride their chariots, pulled by wild, dark age ponies. This might have been so in pagan times, but even then, women would have worn some sort of head covering, especially for practical uses, like when working. These were times when long hair, if not contained, might cause life or death situations, like having your hair catch aflame when leaning over the cooking pot. I can imagine as it is now, finding long strands of hair in your stew would not have been very appealing. It was also a way of avoiding lice or getting other creepy crawlies caught up in it. However, it wasn't unknown in Christian times, when it was considered unseemly to have one's hair uncovered, to find images of unveiled women. Below is a reconstruction of Pictish stone carving with a high-status woman riding side-saddle, her hair uncovered.

 Photo Originally uploaded by
Deacon of Pndapetzim CC BY-SA 2.5 

We know that in Europe, in the medieval period, women did cover their hair, and that the origins of the moral code behind it lay in the early Christian church. This whole thing about women having to cover their hair for moralistic purposes within monotheistic religions, began in the middle-east. But what of the western nations who had only just adopted the monotheist ideology? Did they directly attempt to replicate the women of the eastern countries, or was there some other philosophy that women should cover their hair to the western provinces of the developing Christian world?

If we look back through history, the earliest documentation of the code seems to have first been promoted by St Paul. Paul, who was both a Jew and a Roman citizen, is thought to be the first apostle who spread the teachings of Christ throughout Asia Minor and Europe. He preached that women should cover their hair as submission to their husbands and when praying in church. In a letter to Timothy, he stated that women should dress modestly and not with 'broided' (meaning twined, braided) hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array. But Paul was not the only one who lectured women on their modesty. Tertullian, a theologian writing in 200 AD, wrote that St Paul was not just referring to married women, but 'all women of age', most likely meaning those who had reached puberty. He admonishes those women who do not cover the whole of their head, leaving their ears and neck exposed. It seems that in covering the whole of one’s head, women were avoiding being gazed at, and were also encouraged to be ‘entirely’ covered, unless they were at home. Thus, it was the responsibility of women to ensure that they did not fall prey to sin, or to the lust of men, not the other way around, as according to the writings of Clement of Alexandria.

Alaric enters Rome [Public Domain]

The middle ages, it seems, started post the destruction of the Roman empire, so early 5thc, and ends, roughly, and depending on whose school of thought you prefer, the battle of Bosworth. Nice tidy dates there to follow without any blurring of boundaries. A sure beginning can be put in 410 AD, and the end, August 22nd 1485. I like those dates. So, what was happening in Britain at that time? According to the annals, Rome advised the administrators their most northern province, to look to their own defences, when they asked for help against invaders. Rome had left Britain’s shores for the last time, and they were not coming back. The barbarian was at their door. So those left behind would have been a mixture of British and Roman stock, but those Romans could have come from anywhere. They might have been retired legionnaires, settled, and married to British women. But just because a new epoch was about to start, didn’t mean that Roman life disintegrated overnight. Roman life in some semblance still continued into the 6thc as archaeological evidence shows.

When the exact date was of the arrival of Christianity in Britain, is not known, however, it is apparent both in archaeological and textual sourced that it was well established by the 5thc. Literature suggests that Roman women were required to cover their hair in public when walking out, but the evidence of images at this time in Britain suggests otherwise. Perhaps if the doctrine of hair-covering for modesty had reached these shores, it was not fully enforced.

The Pictish Hilton of Cadbol stone, in the picture above, which dates to around 800AD, has a Christian cross on one side of it, and a secular riding scene on the other, with a high-status lady riding side saddle, her hair uncovered. This is a reconstruction of the stone to show you clearer detail of what she is wearing and how her hair looks. It is not known who she is, but on her right are a mirror and a comb, indicative of her gender. It looks very much like a hunting scene, and the fact that she is riding side-on is intriguing, but the main delight is the way her hair is depicted in cascading waves down her back. It is fascinating, that even as late as this time, the Christian doctrine of wearing veils for modesty was not necessarily in play this far north, though it could be artistic licence. And it does not mean that the rule for church did not apply when it came to prayer time.

Reenactor, Rhydian Jones states, “If you’re on the east coast north of the Forth prior to 850 AD (ish) and doing Pictish (reenactment), the majority of evidence is that women wore their hair uncovered, and frequently wore a large cloak/shawl fastened in the centre of the chest with a penannular brooch… The bigger the brooch the posher you are.” The lady on the stone does seem to have a very large brooch. This cloak could have been pulled up over her head to provide extra warmth in inclement weather. Also, seperate hoods have been indicated also.

A cap showing the Sprang technique used by
Germanic women Photo by
Lyllyundfreya CC By-SA 30

In looking at the evidence for headdress in early the middle ages, in what was later to become England, it seems that the evidence, both archaeological and documented are scarce and what evidence there might be is debatable. That’s not to say that veils weren’t worn, just that there is a paucity of evidence. As I have said earlier, I believe that women wore head-coverings of some sort even in pagan times for the reasons I had previously mentioned, and not just for modesty. Among the dubious evidence found are small rings that might have been used for braid fasteners, but generally the consensus is that these are not practical for such a purpose. Gold brocaded fillets have also been found, but it is not known if they were worn to secure a veil, or worn without the veil.

To find evidence of what women in the British Isles might have worn on their heads, we need to look to their counterparts abroad: It is known that Germanic women in ancient Scandinavia wore caps, samples from bronze and iron age have been found to be woven in sprang, an ancient technique used in Denmark and other parts of the ancient world that made them look like hairnets. An example was found on the body of a girl recovered from the Arden Mose wearing hers over 2 coiled plaits of hair.

The Arden girl's hair [Public Domain]
via Wikimedia Commons

There is no evidence of sprang technique being used by Anglo-Saxon women though the technique was known in Britain. Drawstring-style caps were found to be worn on the figures of women wearing a Menimane Rhineland costume dated from the 5th/6th centuries. It is likely that these types of caps might have been worn in Anglo-Ssxon areas at this time.

Women in Iron Age Denmark regularly wore scarves. A bog body was found wearing a scarf at Huldremose, 1.37 metres long and 49 cm wide with fringed ends. Anglo-Saxon women may have worn similar types of veils/scarves and tabby-woven material has been found on the backs of brooches. The Merovingian queen, Arnegundis, was found in her tomb with a long red satin veil, secured by two small pins at her temples. This long veil was quite common in this period. Arnegundis seems to have favoured a longer, elaborate veil that might have been crossed over the breast and pinned, and hung over an arm. A parallel for this veil was found in the grave of the woman at Mill Hill, in Deal, Kent. Two clips have also been found like the Merovingian woman at the sides of a woman’s head in Cambridgeshire, showing that the fashion might have travelled to south-eastern parts of England. To view an reconstruction of Arnegundis' burial outfit, check this link

There is a considerable amount of linguistic evidence for head gear in Anglo-Saxon:

Haet, - AS for hat.
Cuffie - a loose fitting hood.
Scyfel - a hat or a cap with a projection.
Binde – a fillet. Binde may have been the name for the gold-brocaded fillet that a very few 6thc c women wore. Cloth ones would have left no trace.
Snod – Snood in AS in Old Norse - hofuthbond

So, in summarising, where the western world is concerned, it seems the nearer to Rome and the Orthodox Christian region, the more likely that head-covering was worn, mostly in respect of church teachings. We have seen that there is less evidence for wearing head-coverings than there is for not, and less archaeological evidence than documented or art. But we cannot discount the wearing of headwear for practical reasons, such as for work or for hygiene as opposed to following a religious moral code, but this does not increase the lack of finds.

The next post in the Wimples, Veils, and Head-rails, we venture down our time tunnel to focus on the centuries between the late 7th – 9th centuries. Please join me in this fascinating adventure to find out what we can about women in this time of so-called darkness, and shine a light on their lives.

References

Tertullian, The Veiling of the Virgins, The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol.4 pp27-29,33.

Clement of Alexandria.

Rhydian Jones

Further reading

http://www.vikingage.org/wiki/wiki/Main_Page

Owen-Crocker G.R. 2004 Dress In Anglo-Saxon England The Boydell Press, UK.

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Paula Lofting is an author and a member of the re-enactment society Regia Anglorum, where she regularly takes part in the Battle of Hastings. Her first novel, Sons of the Wolf, is set in eleventh-century England and tells the story of Wulfhere, a man torn between family and duty. The sequel, The Wolf Banner is available now. Paula is currently working on the third book in the series, Wolf's Bane

Find Paula on her Blog
on her Amazon Author Page